|
American Indians and the indigenous
peoples of Alaska, Hawaii, and the Pacific and Caribbean islands
comprise
almost 1% of the US population. The federal government recognizes
the
unique status of more than 565 tribal and Alaska Native
governments as
"domestic dependent nations." The relationships between these
tribes and the federal government are determined by treaties,
executive
orders, tribal legislation, acts of Congress, and decisions of the
federal
courts. These agreements cover a range of issues that will be
important in
facing the prospects of climate change, from responsibilities and
governance, to use and maintenance of land and water resources.
Of the approximately 1.9 million people
formally enrolled in federally recognized tribes, over half live
on
hundreds of reservations throughout the country. Within the 48
conterminous states, tribal lands total about 56 million acres, an
area
about the size of the state of Minnesota. Those who do not live on
tribal
lands, but instead live in cities, suburbs, and small rural
communities
across the US, will face the same set of challenges identified in
the
preceding regional sections. This section focuses on the special
set of
challenges facing those living on and associated economically,
culturally,
and spiritually, with reservations and Native homelands. Although
the
diversity of land areas and tribal perspectives and situations
makes
generalizations difficult, a number of key issues illustrating how
climate
variability and change will affect Native peoples and their
communities
have been identified.
Observed Climate Trends
Reservations are present in every region
of the US, and Native peoples have been experiencing the vagaries
of
climate on this continent for many thousands of years. Native
peoples have
developed unique cultures based on the prevailing regional
climate, from
ice-covered areas of Alaska to the tropical Pacific and Caribbean
islands.
In each region, however, the climate is starting to change, and
Native
peoples are aware of these changes. For example, Natives of Alaska
are
already experiencing significant warming, with the melting of
permafrost
and sea ice altering subsistence lifestyles (see Everything
is Tied to Everything Else -- A Lesson from Alaska),
and changes in the timing of bird and waterfowl migrations as a
result of
changes in season length are being noticed in many regions.
Scenarios of Future Climate
Most of the large Indian reservations are
located in the central and western US. The Canadian and Hadley
model
scenarios project warming of as much as 5 to 10F over the 21st
century,
with more warming during winters than during summers in many
areas. These
models also project that, particularly in the Southwest, warmer
winters
will bring increasing wintertime precipitation, a rising snowline,
and
earlier springtime runoff, thereby affecting the timing and volume
of
river flows. Warmer conditions are also projected to lead to
increased
evaporation, especially in summer, that will dry summer soils and
vegetation, more than offsetting the increase in precipitation in
some
regions. For example, warmer summer conditions are likely to lead
to lower
river and lake levels in the northern Great Plains and Great
Lakes.
Tourism and Community Development
The most urgent priority for tribal
governments and communities over the past thirty years has been
economic
development and job creation. The 1990 census indicated that 31.6%
of all
Indian people lived below the poverty line, compared to 13.1% of
the total
population. The sustained growth of the American economy over the
past
decade has, for the most part, bypassed Indian households and
reservations.
Many tribes are basing a significant share
of their economic development on recreation and tourism, taking
advantage
of culturally and historically significant sites and ceremonies
and the
natural aesthetic beauty of many reservations. These activities
provide
income while also encouraging the re-establishment of customs and
traditions. The economic viability of many of these activities,
however,
is based on the prevailing climate -- water-based recreation on
rivers
and lakes, forest campsites and trails, and diverse wildlife
experiences
based on migrating fish and birds and seasonal flowering of
plants. As
climate changes, these relationships are very likely to change:
reduced
summer runoff is likely to reduce the flow in many streams, drier
summers
are likely to increase fire risk and require closure of
campgrounds, and
the combined effects of climate and ecosystem changes are likely
to
disrupt wildlife and plant communities.
Human Health and Extreme Events
The rural living conditions of many Native
Peoples amplify exposure to variations in the weather. Housing on
many
reservations is old and offers only limited protection from the
environment. Although many traditional structures are designed to
take
advantage of the natural warmth or coolness of the landscape (for
example,
by being located below ground, having thick walls, or being
selectively
exposed to or sheltered from the Sun), acclimation, both
physiologically
and through use of appropriate clothing, is critical, because
homes in
many areas lack effective heating and cooling systems. While
warming in
colder regions will relieve some stresses, some acclimation has
already
occurred. In the presently hot regions, however, there is likely
to be a
significant increase in stress that will require new responses as
new
extremes are reached. While an increase in the presence of
air-conditioned
facilities would help, it would require changes in behavior toward
a more
indoor lifestyle.
Changes in climate are also likely to
create new challenges for community health systems. Drier summer
conditions would likely lead to increased lofting of dust and
dust-borne
organisms and an increase in forest fire incidence. The poorer air
quality
resulting from increases in smoke and dust could possibly increase
respiratory illnesses such as asthma.
Sequences of unusual weather events can
also be disruptive. Unusual weather conditions in 1993 led to an
outbreak
of hantavirus
in the Southwest, affecting both human health and perceptions of
risk. The
infection did not predominantly affect Indian people, but the
event caused
a significant drop in tourism to southwestern reservations,
reducing
income for several communities.
Rights to Water and Other Natural Resources
Treaty rights between tribes and the US
government provide for allocation of significant amounts of water
for use
on reservations. As snowmelt and seasonal runoff patterns change,
it is
possible that water allocations would have to be modified. This
would be
extremely problematic in the western US if water resources were to
become
more limited. Because overall precipitation and runoff are
projected to
rise in some basins, however, it is also possible that water
supply
problems could be ameliorated if the additional runoff is
allocated to
users who can accommodate the larger fluctuations in water flows
that are
projected to occur. For many tribes, particularly those in the
Southwest,
long-term changes in water resources are likely to have
significant
consequences for resource-based sectors that depend on stable
water
supplies.
|
|
Acreage of Indian lands that are
currently being irrigated (brighter blue at bottom of
bars) and
that could potentially be irrigated (blue at top of bars).
Substantially increasing the area of irrigated lands would
significantly increase water demand. |
Subsistence Economies and Cultural Resources
Native lands have provided a wide variety
of resources for Native peoples for thousands of years. Forests,
grasslands, streams, and coastal zones have provided, and for many
groups
still provide, substantial amounts of food, fiber, fish,
medicines, and
culturally important materials. Native traditions are very closely
tied to
natural events and resources. Although subsistence economies
remain a
significant basis for family life only in the far north of Canada
and
Alaska, many tribal communities support themselves by a
combination of
subsistence, welfare, and market economies.
The subsistence component of Native
economies in the Arctic and sub-Arctic is already being threatened
by
changes in the global climate (see Everything
is Tied to Everything Else -- A Lesson from Alaska).
Changes in climate, coupled with other human influences, are
occurring
across the US, and there are projections of more rapid change in
the
future. In the Plains, warmer winter conditions are already
favoring
certain types of grasses, thereby changing the mix of vegetation
types.
Shifting away from the subsistence components of their economies
is very
likely to cause both economic and cultural disruption for many
Native
peoples.
Cultural Sites, Wildlife, and Natural Resources
The character of local landscapes and
weather shapes people's sense of place and how they relate to what
surrounds them. While Native peoples have no monopoly on love of
land,
water, and the sea, their interests started from different
premises that
have developed over thousands of years of living, moving, and
defending
their presence on this continent. Although these special
connections are
frequently explained in spiritual terms, the differences also
include
intellectual knowledge and historical familiarities extending over
thousands of years that continue to be transmitted from generation
to
generation through oral histories and ceremonies. Many Native
peoples
perceive humans to be an integral, not dominating, part of the
environment.
|
While there have been significant changes
in local environments over past centuries, changes in climate,
coupled
with other human influences, are likely to bring much larger
changes in
land cover and wildlife than have occurred in the past.
These
changes will
have practical consequences, but also, at a deeper level, the
whole
environmental experience that supports religious traditions and
the
connections to historically significant sites is likely to start
to
diverge from what has been sustained through many generations.
For
Native
peoples, externally driven climate change will be disrupting the
long
history of intimate association with their environments. |
|
|
The Reality of
Living with Ecosystem Shifts |
|
|
|
|
For centuries, the Anishinaabeg (Ojibway
or Chippewa) who live around Lake Superior and along the
upper
Mississippi River have depended upon the natural resources
of the
forests, lakes, and rivers of the region.
Many of the
reservation
locations were selected to ensure access to culturally
significant
resources, such as maple sugar bushes and wild rice beds,
whose
locations were thought to be fixed.
As drier summer
conditions
cause the western prairies to shift eastward toward the
western
Great Lakes, the extents of maple, birch, and wild rice
habitats
in the US are likely to be significantly reduced.
Because
Ojibway
communities cannot, as a whole, move as ecosystems shift,
climate
change is likely to reduce the resources needed to sustain
their
traditional culture and impact their economic productivity
and the
value of established treaty rights.
For example, the wild rice that
grows abundantly in shallow lake and marshy habitats of
northern
Wisconsin and Minnesota is likely to be adversely
affected. Wild
rice plays a critical role in the economic and ceremonial
life of
many tribes. The hand-harvested and processed seed is
highly
prized as a gourmet food and adds significant commercial
value to
the rural reservation economy.
Federal treaties guarantee
the
right of the Anishinaabeg to gather wild rice in their
aboriginal
territories, which cover much of the states of Wisconsin
and
Minnesota.
As the climate changes, deep or flooding waters
in
early spring could delay germination of the seed on lake
or river
bottoms, leading to crop failure. Lower water levels later
in the
summer could cause the wild rice stalks to break under the
weight
of the fruithead or make the rice beds inaccessible to
harvesters.
Extended drought conditions could encourage greater
natural
competition from more shallow water species. During the
dry summer
of 1988, conflicts over water pitted federal river
management
policies against tribal treaty rights and state demands
for water.
| |
Adaptation Strategies
Responding to substantial changes in
climate will require technologies and resources, two items
desperately
scarce in many tribal communities. Most tribal communities are
limited in
their ways of creating wealth and rely heavily on transfer
payments from
the federal government. In these communities, adjusting plans for
economic
and social development to account for climate change may require
fresh
thinking in federal policies and budgets. In addition, three
important
steps could be taken.
Indian people are significantly
under-represented in scientific and technological professions.
They need
to develop the understanding and skills to deal with a changing
climate.
It is especially important to improve the quality of science and
technology education in schools and tribal colleges that serve
Native
youth. It will also be essential to enlist individuals within
each
Native community to assist in the integration of contemporary
information and traditional values.
Tribes that have developed strong
natural resource management programs for their lands have more
substantial bases from which to respond to changes in climate
than other
tribes. Cost-effective ways, using existing networks and
organizations,
need to be developed to inform decision-makers in tribal
communities,
and provide shared access to adequate technical resources.
The consequences of changes in climate
are rarely contained within reservation boundaries. Serious
discussions
about climate change must include informed stakeholders from
every
relevant jurisdiction. A model of interaction and collaboration
has been
developed between tribes in the northern Great Plains and the
University
of North Dakota. Their success in broadening participation and
making
knowledge available in useful ways can provide helpful lessons
for other
states, tribes, and regions.
|
